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WHEN DID THE ARSENIC POISONING IN BANGLADESH BEGIN?

A question now being asked at home and abroad is "When did the arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh start?"

Several articles and editorials in the press say the problem was almost certain to have been known in some circles as early as the 80s. One reason is that as early as 1987, the Government of West Bengal were preparing a "comprehensive plan of investigation." In 1988 they requested the Central Government of India to sanction a study which resulted in an extremely high-powered team from PHED, AIIH&PH, School of Tropical Medicine, State Water Investigation Directorate, Centre for Study of Man and Environment, and the Central Groundwater Board being brought together. The report they produced was published in 1991, three years before the problem in Bangladesh had been recognised.

How was it possible that, when the staff of WHO, WB, UNICEF, ODA, etc. in India knew about it, those in Dhaka did not? And if they knew why was it the scientists in Bangladesh did not bother to check it out for themselves? Even the subject of arsenic was not talked about among the scientific community until much later. One expert has said he never heard the word arsenic mentioned in any published or project literature.

Certainly the arsenic problem was known to the general public in India at least from the mid-eighties for there was reportedly an uproar in West Bengal over the use of arsenic-contaminated water for irrigation. When the news finally filtered through in the early to mid-nineties, there was either a gap - or a significant delay - as the people in Dhaka were slow to appreciate the significance. That there was a communication gap is clear but a far heavier responsibility for this lies with those officials of donor organisations who were resident in India in the late 1980's.

Although the extent of contamination may not have been known, it is difficult to believe that the donor & UN agencies did not know about it - at least by 1990. All of which points to a disregard for the evidence at a very high level.

As we have reached the end of one millenium and the beginning of another we should stop to think what this point in time means to those suffering from arsenic toxicity in Bangladesh.

In Seladi village of Senbagh Thana Noakhali District of Bangladesh 72 out of 73 hand tubewells have arsenic levels above the WHO maximum permissible limit (0.05 mg/l) and 21 contain arsenic to the extent of 1.00 mg/l with highest concentration being recorded 4.00 mg/l. Yet many are still drinking the contaminated water. In all probability this is the most arsenic contaminated village in the world as far as arsenic contamination of ground water is concerned.

Many tube-wells that were coloured green (safe to drink) are now contaminated. Many villagers who were identified as suffering seriously from arsenical skin lesions have died at an early age.

In the near future, surface water sources may be the only arsenic-free water source in the whole of Bangladesh. Policy makers are however only interested in water as a resource. They have no particular interest in the processes of the hydrological cycle. Policy makers are interested in impacts on society. They are not interested in the details of the science behind those impacts. Policy makers must weigh science, societal needs and wants, and public acceptance. Policy makers seek an integrated approach to solve problems. Policy makers are very comfortable with risk management. They can deal with uncertainty. Policy makers must perceive a threat before taking action. Finally, policy makers seek a broad base of involvement and support before taking action. That day has now surely arrived.

In India and Bangladesh the present permissible limit of arsenic in drinking water is 0.05 mg/l and we believe soon it may be 0.01 mg/l. The reasons for saying this are

(1) WHO guide line value is 0.01 mg/l

(2) the USA is expected to change its maximum permissible limit

(3) our field data shows that a given concentration of arsenic in drinking water affects people with poor nutrition levels more than those with better nutrition levels, and in arsenic affected area of W. Bengal and Bangladesh millions are suffering from malnutrition (4) adult people of West Bengal and Bangladesh drink an average 4.0 litre of water per day.

(Ph.D. Thesis, Status of Arsenic Problem in Two Blocks out of Sixty in Eight Groundwater Arsenic Affected Districts of West Bengal, India; Badal Kumar Mandal, Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India, 1998) when the present WHO guide line value and maximum permissible limit 0.01 mg/l and 0.05 mg/l have been arrived on the basis of 2.0 litres of water consumption per day.

Thus for poor nations arsenic in drinking water should be even less than the WHO limit.

Dr Mahmudur Rahman of DCH speaking at a press conference said that 100 persons are known to have recently died from arsenic-related diseases -- ten of them at the hospital itself. Some 7,000 people across the country have been identified as victims of arsenic-contamination of groundwater. Dr Rahman also said that the indiscriminate extraction of ground water instead of using surface water was the main cause of the large scale arsenic contamination in the country. Referring to the possibility of gangrene among arsenic patients, he said that nine in a family of thirteen in North Bengal were found to be suffering from gangrene. He stressed the need for treatment and a research guideline for containing further arsenic contamination in the country.

Dr Rahman said there is not a single laboratory in Bangladesh which can carry out tests to find the arsenic content even in water. He said "even the most modern lab established at huge expense cannot ensure quality testing."

DCH ARSENIC ACTIVITIES (up to Sept. 1999)

1) Developing community-based Mitigation Model in : 70 centers

2) Action research on Community-based arsenic mitigation program

(With DCH-DPHE-UNICEF) : One thana.

3) National Emergency Screening Program (BAMWASP) : One Thana.

4) Providing Training to Field Workers working in the field of Emergency arsenic

mitigation programme (Under BAMWSP; UNICEF; and other agencies).

5) Developing DCH Model for arsenic mitigation in community. : In 3 Villages.

6) Testing water by field kit of mark etc. and arsenator : At field level.

7) Organising conferences, arranging media coverage & taking part in arsenic-related

propagating information at national & international level.

1) A Two-Day Media Workshop on Arsenic held on July 6, 1999 was organised by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, UNDP, Forum of Environmental Journalists of Bangladesh (FEJB) and Barisal Press Club in Barisal. UNDP-World Bank South Asia Water & Sanitation Programme Coordinator, Dr Babar N Kabir attended the workshop.

2) A conference onn "Water and Environment - The Role of the Media was held at Comilla in Septemver 1999. Topics listed included World Water Vision, water crisis, privatisation, water resources management, women and water, and after a request from a member of the Bangladeshi media, arsenic-contamination of groundwater. It was the latter that brought forth the most lively and concerned discussion.

3) A lecture by Dr. Dipankar Chakraborty of SOES, Javadpur, Calcutta, India on "Million Dollar Arsenic Field-kits Fun" was delivered to the NGO Forum on October 6, 1999 in Dhaka.

4) A seminar/panel discussion organised by Sabir Majumder Ph. D and chaired by Ahmed Badruddin, Ph.D. was held in Los Angeles on October 16, 1999 to raise awareness among non-resident Bangladeshis (NRB's) on the issue of arsenic-contamination of groundwater.

Participants included Professor Smith MD; Ph. D. a world-renowned epidemiologist and expert on arsenic-caused diseases and adviser to theWorld Health Organization (WHO), and Professor Hering, a leading expert on causes of arsenic contamination of ground water.

4) WHO held a Task Group Meeting in Australia during November. The details are yet to be known but it is understood there was no true consensus formed by the delegates.

5) Worried that the tubewells they had financed were now dispensing arsenic-contaminated water, the Rotary International Districts - 3280 & 3290 held a three-day conference in Calcutta from November 26 - 28 to determine how to help those afflicted.

Tragically, there is as yet no known remedy for the patients. Pinjira Begum (now deceased) who was interviewed on video and cited by the New York Times as being ostracized by her own husband, which was allegedly false, has become a symbol of the curse that has been visited on the country.

A public health official at the Conference of Environmental Journalists in Comilla expressed his anguish that the government was only doling out palliatives like vitamins and could do little to ease the suffering of patients, let alone cure them. He said that surveys ought to be conducted to identify patients, while testing tubewells was secondary, but the two are inextricably linked.

Concentration should be laid on identifying patients because the presence of patients in any area is confirmation of contamination and poisoning by arsenic.

Until very recently labs in Bangladesh could not analyse for arsenic or other trace elements but certain scientific research studies doing analyses abroad might have, BUT DID NOT, analyse for arsenic earlier. This in the light of current events was a tragic accident. However there was one early nineties study that was specifically subtitled ".... with special reference to toxicity to fish and humans" can hardly be regarded as just an accident.

A British agency did a groundwater quality survey "with reference to toxicity to humans" in 1992, but did not include arsenic as at that time it was very difficult to get anybody to take groundwater quality seriously. As such UNICEF and GOB were in-line with the rest of the scientific community here, though perhaps one should have expected a little more from WHO -- although they did eventually find it out.

On December 20, 1999 the Department of Public Health and UNICEF launched a National Communication Campaign on Arsenic Mitigation. In addition to participating in this campaign UNICEF is providing materials for a Public Awareness Campaign. It also intends to train health workers on the problems related to arsenic poisoning.

We can only hope that UNICEF has not overlooked an important point - Does their concept of "education" include giving people alternative supplies of potable water? We can only hope they do not fall into the trap of educating people into fearing what can happen if they continue to drink the tube-well water with arsenic before they can offer them alternate supplies for if they do, they may find they have created an atmosphere of violence and civil disorder beyond anything so far experienced in Bangladesh. The answer is "education" must be put in parallel with the introduction of alternative potable water sources.

The NGO Forum is playing a vital role in the Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP) as a member of the steering committee as well as in project implementation including selection of Partner NGOs and CBOs for any area selected.

The NGO Forum maintains close collaboration with all relevant government agencies (DPHE, NIPSOM, LGED, etc.), Universities, UN bodies (UNICEF, World Bank, etc.), Donors, DPHE-DANIDA, BAMWSP, as well as other NGOs. It has established an Arsenic Cell as well as undertaking water quality testing, and shares all its findings of interventions at field level with all stakeholders. It is extending cooperation to others at field level for identifying patients with arsenicosis and for testing water samples.

An engineer and two trainers and 36 field staff from the NGO Forum have been trained in how to test water samples. The training was organised by NIPSOM.Mohakhali, Dhaka. Seven staff members of the NGO Forum's Comilla, Jessore and Barisal regions have also received training from UNICEF & DPHE on water sample testing methods.

The NGO Forum has developed and produced two posters and two leaflets on arsenic contamination in consultation with the communication and arsenic experts of different agencies. These materials have been distributed among the affected communities through partner NGOs & CBOs and also among other stakeholders including the mass media and NAMIC.

The NGO Forum has been disseminating research-oriented information relating to arsenic and arsenicosis through its monthly "Bangla" newsletter, :"PANIPRABAHO" and its quarterly English newsletter, "WATSAN." Both newsletters are distributed free to various NGOs, government offices and other concerned stakeholders.

The NGO Forum is discussing the arsenic issue at different WATSAN related gatherings such as workshops, seminars, discussion forums, etc. with partner NGOs & CBOs as well as other relevant agencies on a priority basis. The issue is also being regularly discussed at community level through promotional activities like courtyard meetings, local discussion forums, school programmes, etc. in order to avoid possible panic and to help people take necessary precautions.

The NGO Forum provides alternate water options including DANIDA's Bucket Treatment Unit, Rainwater Harvesting System, Pond Sand Filter etc. to arsenic affected communities.

In collaboration with the School of Environmental Studies (S.O.E.S.), Jadavpur University, West Bengal, India, the NGO Forum undertook a study on the evaluation of arsenic field testing kits.

The NGO Forum has been endeavouring to build up the capacity of its partner NGOs & CBOs to deal with the arsenic problem by delivering different messages, imparting the necessary training (technical knowledge on how to test water sample for detecting arsenic), identifying patients with arsenicosis and supplying communication materials such as poster, leaflet, etc. In addition, the NGO Forum organised a few 3-day long training courses on arsenic in different districts for imparting knowledge on the testing of water samples for arsenic and for disseminating information to the community. These training courses were participated by over 100 staff members from a number of partner NGOs & CBOs. We also offered our training services on arsenic to various external agencies and trained the staff of CARE, Action Aid, Save the Children Fund (UK), etc.

a) Surveying for arsenic contamination (by testing water samples) in the intervention areas and potentially threatened areas on a random basis.

b) Installing tubewells after testing the aquifer for arsenic.

c) Testing all newly installed tubewells and monitoring the unaffected tubewells of the intervention areas every six-months.

d) Undertaking a situation analysis through extensive surveys and other means.

e) Identification and management of arsenicosis affected patients, including organising a Health Camp for the patients affected with arsenicosis.

f) Establishing a mini laboratory for the regular testing of the water quality.

g) Developing a resource centre on arsenic.

h) Organising workshops, seminars, discussion forums, meetings on a regular basis for creating a mass awareness on arsenic.

i) Incorporating the arsenic issue in different training curricula such as TOT (Training of Trainers, Social Mobilization, etc.

j) Undertaking community-based arsenic mitigation projects in arsenic affected areas of Bangladesh.

k) Conducting research on different aspects of arsenic, including alternative arsenic-free safe water options and on health hazards caused to chronic ingestion of arsenic.

Arsenic was found in village Pathak Shikar and four adjacent villages of Rangpur Zilla in Pirgacha Thana. DPHE has marked fifty contaminated tube-well with red and installed five arsenic-free tube wells in the area. However this is inadequate to meet the demand and people are suffering from the lack of safe drinking water. The range of arsenic found in the tubewells are – 3.01 mg/1; 3.07 mg/1 ; 0.59 mg/1 and 0.40/1.

In Chandpur district around 50,000 shallow tubewells were installed and about 2 million people have been drinking this water. They are now in a panic. The following table gives the level of arsenic in the district in different thanas:

The local DPHE tested 962 water samples and found arsenic in the following:

Arsenic was found in Madaripur in 1997. With the help of financial support by CARE, GUP the local NGO tested 500 shallow tubewells in Razor Thana and sealed and marked out 202 tubewells with red. For want of safe drinking water, people are still drinking the contaminated water in. Of 11,000 thousand tubewells in Madaripur 88% have been found to be contaminated..

The DPHE said 80% tubewells in Nawabganj are contaminated. After the floods of ‘98 and ‘99, the level of arsenic has increased in the area. The DPHE Nawabganj office tubewell has 0.11 mg/1 arsenic. DPHE has informed the local people about the contamination and suggested if they use this water they should add 1 teaspoonful of alum with 15 litre of water and drink it only after letting it stand for 12 hours. Some people are boiling the water to get rid of the arsenic and water-related diseases but boiling will not remove arsenic.

In Sendeagh thana of Noakhali district, 9 unions are affected by arsenic. About 108 people are sick with arsenicosis.

Last October the NGO Forum has drawn a map of the arsenic affected districts (46) for DWAS. 0.01 to 0.044 mg/1 arsenic has been found in seven districts and 0 .01 mg/1 is 11 districts.

The districts with more than 0.5 mg/l of arsenic —

The following districts have between 0.01 mg/l to 0.049 mg/l of arsenic

The following districts have less than 0.01 mg/l of arsenic

SCIENTISTS SAY FERTILISERS MAY AGGRAVATE ARSENIC POISONING

Researchers suggest that the increasing use of phosphate fertilizers might play a part in the arsenic pollution of groundwater. They believe that when phosphate and arsenic compete with each other in the ground, naturally occurring arsenic is displaced out of the soil and can leach into water supplies. Phosphates also encourage the growth of bacteria, which helps to release arsenic. Also, in contrast to earlier studies, they have found that arsenic concentration only increases with depth for depths up to 22 m and decreases at depths of over 22 m.

S.K. Acharaya, Geological Survey of India, Calcutta 700016, India or Dipankar Chakraborti, School of Environmental Studies, Jadavpur University, Calcutta 700032, India

POISON THREAT IN BANGLADESH (Excerpts)

By Helen Sewell of BBC Science

BBC News, BBC News, 6 October 1999.

Fertilisers used in Bangladesh may have put millions of lives at risk, according to a new study by scientists in India. The danger comes from the poison arsenic, which is polluting supplies of drinking water. Much of Bangladesh's drinking water comes from wells sunk by agencies working for the United Nations. Some well water contains so much arsenic that an adult drinking four litres a day could start to show signs of poisoning. Arsenic can damage most of the body's major organs and the immune system. It is also known to cause cancer. Experts estimate that half the people in Bangladesh - that is up to 75 million individuals - are slowly being poisoned. West Bengal faces similar problems.

Writing in the journal Nature, researchers from the Geological Survey of India suggest that the increasing use of phosphate fertilisers might play a part. They believe that when phosphate and arsenic compete with one another in the ground, arsenic is displaced out of the soil and can leach into water supplies. Phosphates also encourage the growth of bacteria, which helps to release arsenic.

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Fertilisers are known to contain "high" levels of phosphate which competitively sorb onto iron oxide surfaces and have a higher affinity for these surfaces compared to arsenic, therefore any arsenic that may be immobilized and "stuck" onto iron oxide surfaces could potentially all get displaced by the phosphates in the fertilisers thereby releasing arsenic into the groundwater.

A common difficulty with "man-made" explanations is that they can't also account for the arsenic-free areas. Also the total quantities of arsenic in groundwater here are absolutely enormous. There is too much arsenic at considerable depth (say >30m) in areas with minimal pumping like Chandpur District -- besides if this were true, it is difficult to explain local absences of arsenic that are well correlated with geology.

The role of naturally occurring phosphate weathered from the mineral apatite is more problematical.

ARSENIC TEST KITS

Although, at the present time there seems little alternative to testing the tubewells regularly, analytical Chemists should be consulted to decide on whether a given analytical method is suitable for deployment, not bureaucrats as the arsenic calamity in Bangladesh presents a challenge in field analytical methodology for rapid and accurate measurement of inorganic arsenic in drinking water. The kit now in use is not only inadequate to screen water samples containing less than 100 ppb of arsenic, it also produces toxic arsine gas that may be a health hazard. We believe the kit experiment should be performed either under a working fume hood or in the open field with good airflow. The latter may however cause unacceptable results. Workers performing a large number of tests in highly affected areas should be provided with a gas mask to minimise any inhalation of arsine gas.

So far, the DPHE and UNICEF have examined 25,000 wells and have the capacity to test some 1,85,000 more. The World Bank is providing $32 million to the government to conduct more tests as well -- but though field kits are quick, cheap and require less skill and reliably identify the most contaminated wells (>0.2 mg/l), they are NOT reliable at the 0.05 mg/l level and do not identify arsenic in the 0.01 - 0.05 mg/l range.

The five different field kits in use are all based on more or less the same principle, therefore it is difficult to prove or disprove the applicability of any technique without comparison to a standard method.

If the government of India and Bangladesh recommend the level of arsenic in drinking water be lowered to 10 mg/l then the data we are going to generate from using the present test kits by spending millions of dollar will not be so useful. Instead we shall have to go for sensitive instrumental techniques as we cannot expect to get any reliable data at the 10 mg/l level from the available field kits. It will therefore be a wise decision to select an instrumental technique that can determine 5 mg/l of arsenic in 95% confidence level. An instrumental technique will be much cheaper compared to the Field-Kit if a large number of samples are analysed, as is going to be the case in West Bengal and Bangladesh.

The School of Environmental Studies (SOES), Jadavpur University is suggesting FI-HG-AAS technique that can measure arsenic in the level of 5 mg/l (with 95% confidence). Over the last 10 years, SOES has applied this technique to analyse for arsenic 80,000 water samples, more than 13,000 urine samples, about 10,000 each hair and nail samples and about 1,000 skin-scale samples from 9 affected districts of West Bengal and 42 districts of Bangladesh.

Finally the School of Environmental Studies (SOES) very strongly feels that attempts to introduce Field Kits by spending millions of dollars would only mean a colossal waste of money.

A NEW ARSENIC FIELD KIT

A "Herbal Method" kit for detecting arsenic in groundwater has been Invented by Jaharul Islam, a student of Meherpur Govt. College. The process consists of mixing herbs with arsenic contaminated water and watching the water change to a violet hue. Only two or three minutes are needed to complete the test. The amount of arsenic in the water can be determined from the colour.

ARSENIC METER

Prof. Dr. Abu Mohammad Yusup of the Department of Environmental Science and Pollution, Shahjalal University has invented an arsenic measurement meter. The meter can detect the amount of arsenic and iron in the water. The examination cost is 1200 Taka and is available from the Shahjalal University of Sylhet.

A SIMPLE ARSENIC REMOVAL METHOD

ABSTRACT

A simple three-pitcher (locally known as ‘3-kalshi’) filtration assembly made entirely from readily available local materials is tested for its efficacy in removing arsenic from the groundwater of Bangladesh. In a 3- kalshi assembly, the first kalshi has iron chips and coarse sand, the second kalshi has wood charcoal and fine sand, and the third kalshi is the collector for filtered water. About 240 L of arsenic contaminated groundwater and groundwater spiked with high concentrations of both As(III) and As(V) were filtered. Analytical measurements were performed by using anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) for trace level As(III) and As(total) and redox potential. Atomic absorption spectrometry with graphite furnace and Zeeman background correction (AASGF-Z) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICPAES) were used to validate measurements of arsenic and measure 24 other metals before and after filtration. Total Fe, ionic conductivity, Eh, pH, temperature and flow rates were measured at various stages of the filtration process. It has been shown that more toxic As(III) can be removed from 800 ppb to below the detection limit of 2 ppb. The As(total) can be removed to a concentration below 10 ppb for most samples even at the highest input concentration of 1100 ppb As(total). The dissolved iron concentration decreased from an average 6000 ppb to 200 ppb. Calculations based on compound formation and arsenic adsorption on hydrous ferric oxide show that, with a constant input of dissolved iron the arsenic removal capacity increases linearly with each filtration. Although the role of metallic iron was difficult to quantify, it provided excess soluble iron in the filtering media of the second kalshi. The wood charcoal was used to remove any organic impurities that may be present in groundwater. The redox potential change shows speciation of iron in agreement with literature data. The decrease in conductivity by 35% of the original value indicates substantial removal of dissolved ions. This is also supported by ICPAES measurement. The filtered water remained crystal clear for months and free from most toxic metal ions. The daily capacity of the 3-kalshi system varies from 42 -148 L/day. The final water quality meets and exceeds the guideline values suggested by USEPA, World Health Organization and Bangladesh. We suggest the use of this simple setup to make potable water.

RAINWATER HARVESTING

The misconception that rainwater is pure prevails even among many educated people. Now that arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh poses such a serious threat to health, more and more people are turning to surface water or rainwater harvesting as a solution. Many NGOs and the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA), are studying the feasibility of rainwater harvesting in Bangladesh. The most important questions that need to be addressed before harvesting rain water are: (1) is rainwater harvesting economically and technically feasible for rural people? and (2) does rainwater meet the quality for drinking water?

The amount of rainfall varies both spatially and temporally. Given below is a table showing the monthly rainfall in the former greater districts of Bangladesh (average for 73 years - 1878 - 1953 and 1957 - 1966).

________________________________________________________________________

ANNUAL RAINFALL

THE LEVEL OF RAINFALL VARIES OVER THE REGIONS AND TENDS TO DECREASE FROM EAST TO WEST. SYLHET AND CHITTAGONG IN THE EAST HAVE THE HIGHEST RAINFALL.

MONTHLY RAINFALL for 1995 (in millimetres)

While the maximum amount of average annual rainfall occurs in the north-eastern districts (550 cm) of Sylhet and Moulivibazar, the minimum amount falls in the western and south-western districts (150 cm) of Meherpur, Kushtia, Chuadanga, Chapai Nawabganj, Noagaon, and Rajshahi. Also, rainfall is mainly restricted during the months of April to September. Consequently, rain water harvesting will be relatively easier during certain months of the year in the certain parts of Bangladesh. Groundwater contamination by arsenic is more severe in the western and south-western districts, where rain water harvesting would be more appropriate to solve the polluted drinking water problems.

A 1982 study, by the United Nations Environment Program, showed that with an average rainfall of 72 inches and using 1,100-gallon storage tanks, enough water could be collected in 12 hours to serve a family of six for 45 days. Average annual rainfall exceeds 72 inches for most parts of Bangladesh. Although availability of rain water is an essential precondition for rainwater harvesting, it requires establishment of appropriate techniques, as well as quality control before using it as drinking water.

Rainwater harvesting requires an arrangement to collect, treat, and distribute the captured rainwater. The quality of rainwater harvesting technology varies widely depending on the resources available. For example, a commercial company in Texas deploys sophisticated technology to collect, treat, and distribute captured rainwater. Villagers living on the rain-shadow areas of the Andes Mountains use a long and wide piece of thick cloth raised with long poles like sails of a boat to collect rainwater.

Specially designed rooftops in buildings are used to collect rainwater in Kawranbazar office, Dhaka, of the WASA. Most buildings in Bangladesh, however, are not designed for rainwater harvesting. Structural modification of buildings will be necessary to make them suitable. Such an investment will be beyond the financial means of most families living in Bangladesh.

Studies of the chemical composition of rainfall have been carried on for many years starting in late 1880s in the United States and in Europe. Rainwater collected in various parts of the USA contains (in milligrams per litre): Fe (0.015), Ca (0.075-1.41), Mg (0.027-1.2), Na (0.22-9.4), Ca (0.075-1.41), K (0.072-0.11), HCO3 (4-7), SO4 (0.7-7.6), Cl (0.22-17), NO2 (0.02), NO3 (0.02-0.62), and total dissolved solids (8.2-38), and pH of 4.9 to 6.4. Although most of these concentrations fall within the maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for drinking water supplied by public water agencies as determined by the US Environmental Protection Agency, some exceed safe drinking water standards.

Since rainwater is not pure water, some precautions will have to be taken before the water is consumed. therefore vigorous testing of rainwater to determine the chemical composition will be necessary to ensure a safe drinking water standard. Although rainwater harvesting will not be able to replace all other sources of drinking water, it will certainly be able to ease the pressure on surface water and arsenic-contaminated groundwater usage.

HAS ANYONE THOUGHT TO MIX THE ARSENIC-CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER WITH RAINWATER?

HARVARD ARSENIC PROJECT

Part of our research is to figure out what the arsenic concentration levels might look like over time. If a well is clean now, if it will be contaminated, when?? Tough questions .... the shallow wells are clean most likely due to fluctuations in the water table. The deep tube well contamination is an interesting finding.

By returning to surface water as a sole source of water, is it adequate for the country? It is doubtful if surface water alone can satisfy BOTH household and agricultural needs THROUGHOUT the year. Even if gains in efficiencies are made, the available water resources is SO unevenly distributed throughout the year and throughout the country that there is sure to be months where people will not have access to potable water.

People need to realize that water has many uses and can have varying degrees of quality. Water for drinking must be of the highest quality. However, water for agriculture or cleaning may not need to be of the highest quality. Probably a combination of both surface and groundwater usage would be best.

UNICEF PLEDGES FUNDS TO COMBAT ARSENIC POISONING

According to UNICEF, 59 out of 64 districts in the country are affected, exposing a staggering 75 - 80 million people to possible risk. The DPHE and UNICEF conducted a survey of nearly 400 thanas, in a little over half of which no arsenic was detected. About one in every five tubewells were affected, which has also led to a fierce controversy. There are 4.5 million tubewells in the country, only a quarter built by the government, and it will be plainly difficult to survey all of them, which means that it is not clear how many are dangerous. While shallow tubewells are thought to be more susceptible, those which have been sunk deeper do also contain arsenic, like the case cited of ten deep tubewells near Calcutta.

UNICEF has assured Bangladesh of increased financial support to help fight arsenic contamination which has affected nearly 50% of the population. UNICEF Executive Director Carol Bellamy made the pledge while on a three-day visit to Bangladesh in response to appeals made by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and Family Welfare Minister Salahuddin Yusuf. Yusuf told Carol Bellamy that 5,000 cases of arsenic poisoning have been reported. Some 80 million of the country's more than 120 million people face the risk of poisoning from ground water.

In the light of experience, it would not be safe to assume any regions are safe from anything without solid evidence.. There are other paramaters such as selenium for which there are simply no data. Has anyone ever seen any tests for viruses in water supplies (surface or groundwater)? There are 300,000 people currently affected in Taiwan. In Bangladesh, quite simply all water supplies should be tested for arsenic.

Although tests done so far on surface water do not indicate the presence of arsenic -- this should not be taken for granted. After all, how did the arsenic reach the sediments of Bangladesh except by being carried through the river systems? Why should processes that have operated for thousands of years suddenly have stopped?

ARSENIC CONTENT IN SURFACE WATER

1) Buriganga R. -- arsenic - NIL

2) Dhaleshwar -- arsenic - NIL

3) Tongi Bari (pond) -- arsenic - NIL

4) Boloi (pond) -- arsenic - NIL

5) Muktarpur -- arsenic - NIL

6) Shitolokha R. -- arsenic - NIL

BRAC

BRAC has developed alternatives to tubewells, which rely on community management of safe water options, including pond sand filters and rainwater harvesting.

ACTIVITIES of BAMWSP

Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation and Water Supply Project (BAMWSP )has under taken an Emergency arsenic survey in 6 thanas. It has conducted its survey as part of ensuring safe drinking water in 1000 villages of Gopalgang sadar, Bharamara, Ishurdi, Ujirpur, Hajiganj, and Gopalganj thana.

Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation water supply project has examined 5,995 tubewell in 88 villages at Sylhet district. Golapgang Thana is severely affected and about 7% tube well was identified as arsenic polluted. BAMWSP surveyors have marked tubewell with red colour. It also identified 10 arsenic affected people among 113,163 inhabitants of these villages with the help of local public Health department. To create awareness among local people it had arranged different meetings with the help of five affiliated NGOs and distributed necessary awareness leaflets.

BAMWSP has also examined 1991 tube well in 37 villages in Ujirpur thana at Barisal district. About 55% tube well was identified as arsenic pollution 40 persons were affected by arsenic among 70,000 inhabitants of these villages.

Ishaq Ali, Superintendent Engineer of the Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE), Rajshahi, conceded that the authorities were yet to cope with the magnitude of the problem while demand for sinking new tube-wells to replace the arsenic contaminated ones kept increasing.

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